The Past and Present of Instructional Design in Online Learning: Trends and Emerging Directions

Adem Özkan; İsak Çevik; Esin Saylan; Ünal Çakıroğlu

doi:10.19173/irrodl.v26i3.8507

Authors

Adem Özkan Independent Researcher https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9359-9192
İsak Çevik Agri Ibrahim Cecen University https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9457-638X
Esin Saylan Trabzon University https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7629-8283
Ünal Çakıroğlu Trabzon University https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8030-3869

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v26i3.8507

Keywords:

online learning, instructional design models, systematic review, educational technology

Abstract

With the rapid evolution of online learning, driven by technological advancements and the global transition to distance education during the COVID-19 pandemic, the demand for effective instructional design models has become increasingly critical. This study conducted a systematic mapping analysis of instructional design models tailored for online learning environments to offer a comprehensive classification and evaluation of these models. The analysis delved into the theoretical underpinnings, practical applications, and implications for educators and instructional designers. Models were categorized based on instructional conditions, desired learning outcomes, and theoretical-methodological frameworks, and thus provided a structured approach to understanding their relevance and effectiveness. The findings underscored a paradigm shift from traditional, content-centric frameworks toward adaptive, learner-centered designs that emphasize motivation, social interaction, personalization, and technological integration. Additionally, this study offered practical recommendations for selecting and implementing models that align with the dynamic needs of learners and supported future advancements in instructional design, to foster innovation and effective learning in diverse educational contexts.

References

Abuhassna, H., & Alnawajha, S. (2023). Instructional design made easy! Instructional design models, categories, frameworks, educational context, and recommendations for future work. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 13(4), 715–735. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe13040054

Adnan, M., & Anwar, K. (2020). Online learning amid the COVID-19 pandemic: Students' perspectives. Online Submission, 2(1), 45-51. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPSP.2020261309

Ali, A. (2003). Instructional design and online instruction. TechTrends, 47(5), 42–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02763205

Alonso, F., López, G., Manrique, D., & Viñes, J. M. (2005). An instructional model for Web‐based e‐learning education with a blended learning process approach. British Journal of Educational Technology, 36(2), 217–235. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2005.00454.x

Al Mamun, M. A., Lawrie, G., & Wright, T. (2020). Instructional design of scaffolded online learning modules for self-directed and inquiry-based learning environments. Computers & Education, 144, 103695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103695

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Addison Wesley Longman.

Andrews, D. H., & Goodson, L. A. (1980). A comparative analysis of models of instructional design. Journal of Instructional Development, 3(4), 2–16. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02904348

Ayumba, E. M. (2023). Medical Semiology Teaching Based on Intelligent eLearning. In Caring is Sharing–Exploiting the Value in Data for Health and Innovation (pp. 482-483). IOS Press. https://doi.org/10.3233/shti230181

Bannan-Ritland, B. (2008). Teacher design research: An emerging paradigm for teachers professional development. In A. E. Kelly, R. A. Lesh, & J. Baek (Eds.), Handbook of design research methods in education: Innovations in science, technology, mathematics and engineering. Mahway, NJ: Taylor & Francis

Bates, T. (2014). A short history of educational technology. https://tonybates.wpengine.com/2014/12/10/a-short-history-of-educational-technology/

Bliuc, A. M., & Ellis, A. (2017). High-quality learning in. Self and Social Identity in Educational Contexts, 211. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315746913

Bonk, C. (2001). Online teaching in an online world. Retrieved July 18, 2024, from http://www.publicationshare.com/docs/faculty_survey_report.pdf

Branch, R., & Merrill, M. D. (2012). Characteristics of instructional design models. In R. A. Reiser & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (pp. 8–16). Prentice Hall.

Byrne, M. (2023). The 6P4C model: An instructional design conceptual model for delivery of e-learning. Journal of Professional Nursing, 45, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2022.11.006

Carliner, S. (2004). An overview of online learning (2nd ed.). HRD Press.

Chen, L. L. (2016). A model for effective online instructional design. Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal, 6(2), 2303–2308. https://doi.org/10.20533/licej.2040.2589.2016.0304

Chen, K. C., & Chuang, K. W. (2008). Building an e-learning system model with implications for research and Instructional use. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 40, 479-481. Retrieved March 27, 2025 from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/293315764_Building_an_e-Learning_system_model_with_implications_for_research_and_instructional_use

Clark R. C., & Mayer R. E. (2003). e-Learning and the science of instruction. Jossey-Bass.

Clark, R. C., & Mayer, R. E. (2016). e-Learning and the science of instruction (4th ed.). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119239086

Çınar, M. (2012). Examining the design process for Web-based courses: An example of formative research [Doctoral dissertation, Hacettepe University, Ankara].

Czerkawski, B. C., & Lyman, E. W. (2016). An instructional design framework for fostering student engagement in online learning environments. TechTrends, 60, 532–539. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-016-0110-z

Dennick, R. (2016). Constructivism: reflections on twenty five years teaching the constructivist approach in medical education. International journal of medical education, 7, 200. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.5763.de11

Dijkstra, S., Schott, F., Seel, N. M., & Tennyson, R. D. (2012). Instructional Design: International Perspectives: Volume I: Theory, Research, and Models: volume Ii: Solving Instructional Design Problems. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203052778

Edmonds, G. S., Branch, R. C., & Mukherjee, P. (1994). A conceptual framework for comparing instructional design models. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(4), 55–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02298055

Falowo, R. O. (2007). Factors impeding implementation of Web-based distance learning. AACE Journal, 15(3), 315–338. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228982721_Factors_impeding_implementation_of_web-based_distance_learning

Fardanesh, H. (2006). A classification of constructivist instructional design models based on learning and teaching approaches (ED491713). ERIC. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED491713

Gagne, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K. C., Keller, J. M., & Russell, J. D. (2005). Principles of instructional design. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/pfi.4140440211

Galusha, J. M. (1997). Barriers to learning in distance education. Interpersonel Computing and Technology, 5(3–4), 6–14. Retrieved August 18, 2024, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED416377

Gustafson K. L., & Branch R. M. (2002). What is instructional design. In R. A. Reiser & J. V. Dempsey (Eds.), Trends and issues in instructional design and technology (pp. 16–25). Prentice Hall.

Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feedback. Review of Educational Research, 77(1), 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487

Hrastinski, S. (2009). A theory of online learning as online participation. Computers & Education, 52(1), 78–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2008.06.009

James, K. L., Randall, N. P., & Haddaway, N. R. (2016). A methodology for systematic mapping in environmental sciences. Environmental Evidence, 5, 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13750-016-0059-6

Javaid, M. A., Schellekens, H., Cryan, J. F., & Toulouse, A. (2021). eNEUROANAT-CF: A conceptual instructional design framework for neuroanatomy e-learning tools. Medical Science Educator, 31, 777–785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40670-020-01149-y

Jonassen, D. H. (2004). Learning to solve problems: An instructional design guide. Pfeiffer/Jossey-Bass.

Jung H, Kim Y, Lee H, Shin Y. Advanced instructional design for successive E-learning: based on the Successive Approximation Model (SAM). Int J E-Learning. 2019; 18: 191-204. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331829482_Advanced_Instructional_Design_for_Successive_E-Learning_Based_on_the_Successive_Approximation_Model_SAM

Kirkwood, A. (2014). Teaching and learning with technology in higher education: blended and distance education needs ‘joined-up thinking’rather than technological determinism. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 29(3), 206-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680513.2015.1009884

Kuciapski, M. (2015). Effective management of e-learning projects with limited resources supported by the integration of rapid instructional design concept. E-MENTOR, 4(61), 45–54. https://www.doi.org/10.15219/em61.1204

Kulkarni, C., Wei, K. P., Le, H., Chia, D., Papadopoulos, K., Cheng, J., ... & Klemmer, S. R. (2013). Peer and self assessment in massive online classes. ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI), 20(6), 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1145/250505

Li, X. (2009). Review of distance education used in higher education in China. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 7(2), 22–27.

Liberati, A., Altman, D. G., Tetzlaff, J., Mulrow, C., Gøtzsche, P. C., Ioannidis, J. P., Clarke, M., Devereaux, P. J., Kleijnen, J., & Moher, D. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine, 151(4), W-65. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00136

Majid, A. H. A., & Stapa, S. H. (2017). The use of scaffolding technique via Facebook in improving descriptive writing among ESL learners. 3L, Language, Linguistics, Literature, 23(4). http://doi.org/10.17576/3L-2017-2304-07

Mayer, R. E. (2019). Thirty years of research on online learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 33(2), 152–159. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3482

Mayer, R. E. (2024). The past, present, and future of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. Educational Psychology Review, 36(1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09842-1

Moher, D., Shamseer, L., Clarke, M., Ghersi, D., Liberati, A., Petticrew, M., Shekelle, P., Stewart, L. A., & Prisma-P Group. (2015). Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis protocols (PRISMA-P): 2015 statement. Systematic Reviews, 4, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1186/2046-4053-4-1

Palloff, R. M., & Pratt, K. (2007). Online learning communities in perspective. In R. Luppicini (Ed.), Online learning communities, (pp. 3-15). IAP, Charlotte, N.C.

Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). Instructional design: What is it and why is it. In C. M. Reigeluth (Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their current status (pp. 3–36). Erlbaum.

Reigeluth, C. M. (2016). Instructional theory and technology for the new paradigm of education. In B. H. Khan & M. Ally (Eds.), International handbook of e-learning: Theoretical perspectives and research (Vol. 1, pp. 79–92). Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315760933.

Roblyer, M. D. (2015). Introduction to systematic instructional design for traditional, online, and blended environments. Pearson Education.

Roh, S. Z. (2015). Structural relationships of adult e-learners' teaching presence, self-efficacy toward e-learning, and learning satisfaction: Focused on the mediating effect of learning presence and learning flow. International Information Institute (Tokyo). Information, 18(6 (B)), 2759. https://www.proquest.com/openview/115793ef7b6571d30c903eb2f2a08fae/1?cbl=936334&pq-origsite=gscholar

Salter, D., Richards, L., & Carey, T. (2004). The ‘T5’design model: An instructional model and learning environment to support the integration of online and campus‐based courses. Educational Media International, 41(3), 207–218. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523980410001680824

Simonson, M., & Schlosser, C. (2004). We need a plan: An instructional design approach for distance education courses. Distance Learning, 1(4), 29. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/fse_facarticles/171?utm_source=nsuworks.nova.edu%2Ffse_facarticles%2F171&utm_medium=PDF&utm_campaign=PDFCoverPages

Siragusa, L., Dixon, K. C., & Dixon, R. (2007). Designing quality e-learning environments in higher education. Proceedings of ASCILITE Singapore (pp. 923–935). https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=0277fc6e2b090ed378bb72471dee5afab728a5f7

Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2004). Instructional design. John Wiley & Sons.

Spatioti, A. G., Kazanidis, I., & Pange, J. (2022). A comparative study of the ADDIE instructional design model in distance education. Information, 13(9), 402. https://doi.org/10.3390/info13090402

Surahman, E. (2019). Integrated mobile learning system (imoles) sebagai upaya mewujudkan masyarakat pebelajar unggul era digital [Integrated mobile learning system (imoles) as an effort to create an excellent learning society in the digital era]. Kajian Dan Riset Dalam Teknologi Pembelajaran, 5(2), 50-56. https://journal2.um.ac.id/index.php/jinotep/article/view/6905

Şimşek, A. (2016). Öğretim tasarımı ve modelleri [Instructional design models]. K. Çağıltay & Y. Göktaş. (Ed.). Öğretim teknolojilerinin temelleri: Teoriler, araştırmalar, eğilimler [Fundamentals of instructional technologies: Theories, research, trends] (s. 105-122). Ankara: Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık.

Tennyson, R. D. (2010). Historical reflection on learning theories and instructional design. Contemporary educational technology, 1(1), 1-16. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/252114

van Merriënboer, J. J., & Kirschner, P. A. (2018). 4C/ID in the context of instructional design and the learning sciences. In F. Fischer, C. E. Hmelo- Silver, S. R. Goldman, & P. Reimann (Eds.), International handbook ofthe learning sciences (pp. 169–179). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315617572

Voet, M., Gielen, M., Boelens, R., & De Wever, B. (2018). Using feedback requests to actively involve assessees in peer assessment: effects on the assessor’s feedback content and assessee’s agreement with feedback. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 33, 145-164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-017-0345-x

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (Vol. 86). Harvard University Press.

Wang, C., Mirzaei, T., Xu, T., & Lin, H. (2022). How learner engagement impacts non-formal online learning outcomes through value co-creation: An empirical analysis. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00341-x

Warburton, S., & Perry, M. (2022). Design for Balance: Addressing Challenges of Safety, Privacy and Identity Management in Online and Hybridised Learning and Teaching Spaces. In Hybrid Learning Spaces (pp. 287-307). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-88520-5_16

Zimnas, A., Kleftouris, D., & Valkanos, N. (2009). IDEL: A simple instructional design tool for e-learning. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 49, 366–372. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=1c98fa37916a7319ea82f4393cd15c43e095e985