Instructor Leadership and the Community of Inquiry Framework: Applying Leadership Theory to Higher Education Online Learning
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v24i2.6953Keywords:
higher education, online learning, community of inquiry, instructor leadership, servant leadership, student satisfactionAbstract
Higher education institutions continue to invest in online learning, yet research indicates instructors often lack experience, preparation, and guidance for teaching online. While instructor leadership is essential for meaningful online learning, few studies have investigated online instructors’ leadership behaviors. This study offers new insights into the conceptual and empirical alignment between instructor leadership, as interpreted through the dual lenses of organizational leadership theory and the Community of Inquiry (CoI) framework, proposing instructor leadership as foundational to the teaching and learning experience in a CoI. Specifically, the convergent mixed methods study investigated students’ (N = 87) and instructors’ (N = 7) perceptions of instructor servant leadership (SL) behaviors in an online graduate-level course designed to facilitate a CoI. Results demonstrate instructor SL behaviors were perceived differently by students and instructors, instructors’ self-perceptions were generally higher than students’ perceptions, and students’ perceptions of instructor SL were positively correlated with their satisfaction with the course and instructor. Implications offer insights into instructor leadership behaviors important for developing instructor leadership presence to facilitate meaningful learning and student satisfaction in higher education online learning.
References
Aarons, G. A., Ehrhart, M. G., Torres, E. M., Finn, N. K., & Beidas, R. S. (2017). The humble leader: Association of discrepancies in leader and follower ratings of implementation leadership with organizational climate in mental health. Psychiatric Services, 68, 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.201600062
Alotebi, H., Alharbi, O., & Masmali, A. (2018). Effective leadership in virtual learning environments. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 8(2), 156–160. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2018.8.2.1026
Anderson, T., Liam, R., Garrison, D. R., & Archer, W. (2001). Assessing teaching presence in a computer conferencing context. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 5(2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v5i2.1875
Archer, W. (2010). Beyond online discussions: Extending the community of inquiry framework to entire courses. Internet and Higher Education, 13, 69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.10.005
Balwant, P. T. (2016). Transformational instructor-leadership in higher education teaching: A meta-analytic review and research agenda. Journal of Leadership Studies, 9(4), 20–42. https://doi.org/10.1002/jls.21423
Balwant, P. T. (2019). “Keeping it real” authentic instructor-leadership, student engagement and performance, and leader distance. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 25(1), 39–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2019.1657593
Beaudoin, M. F. (2015). Distance education leadership in the context of digital change. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 16(2), 33–44. https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=googlescholar&id=GALE|A437059683&v=2.1&it=r&sid=AONE&asid=f1bdb7d7
Bolkan, S., & Goodboy, A. K. (2009). Transformational leadership in the classroom: Fostering student learning, student participation, and teacher credibility. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 36(4), 296–306. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2010-01017-003
Boston, W., Diaz, S. R., Gibson, A. M., Ice, P., Richardson, J., & Swan, K. (2019). An exploration of the relationship between indicators of the community of inquiry framework and retention in online courses. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 14(1), 3–19. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ862358.pdf
Boyatzis, R. (1998). Transforming qualitative information: Thematic analysis and code development. Sage Publications.
Buchen, I. H. (1998). Servant leadership: A model for future faculty and future institutions. The Journal of Leadership Studies, 5(1), 125–134. https://doi.org/10.1177/107179199800500111
Chory, R. M., & McCroskey, J. C. (1999). The relationship between teacher management communication style and affective learning. Communication Quarterly, 47(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/01463379909370120
Collins, K., Groff, S., Mathena, C., & Kupczynski, L. (2019). Asynchronous video and the development of instructor social presence and student engagement. Turkish Journal of Distance Education, 20(1), 53-70. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.522378
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage Publications, Inc.
Dennen, V. P., & Arslan, O. (2022). The visual performance of online identity: Instructor presence and persona across tools and settings. Studies in Technology Enhanced Learning, 2(1), 13-30. https://doi.org/10.21428/8c225f6e.9e975efc
Drury, S. (2005, August). Teacher as servant leader: A faculty model for effectiveness with students. In Servant Leadership Research Roundtable. Symposium conducted at School of Leadership Studies, Regent University. http://www.drurywriting.com/sharon/drury_teacher_servant.pdf
Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., Van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. The Leadership Quarterly, 30(1), 111–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.07.004
Farmer, H. M., & Ramsdale, J. (2016). Teaching competencies for the online environment. Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology, 42(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.21432/T2V32J
Fereday, J., & Muir-Cochrane, E. (2006). Demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods,5(1), 80–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500107
Garrison, D. R. (2017). E-Learning in the 21st century: A community of inquiry framework for research and practice (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 11(2), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1096-7516(00)00016-6
Garrison, D. R., & Arbaugh, J. B. (2007). Researching the community of inquiry framework: Review, issues, and future directions. The Internet and Higher Education, 10(3), 157-172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2007.04.001
Garrison, D. R., & Cleveland-Innes, M. (2005). Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning: Interaction is not enough. The American Journal of Distance Education, 19(3), 133-148. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15389286ajde1903_2
Greenleaf, R. K. (2008). The servant as leader. The Robert K. Greenleaf Center. (Original work published 1970).
Hung, M., & Chou, C. (2015). Students’ perceptions of instructors’ roles in blended and online learning environments: A comparative study. Computers & Education, 81, 315–325. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.022
Kondrasuk, J., & Bernard, E. (2013). A better approach to college teaching? Journal of Innovative Education Strategies, 2(1), 1–17. https://pilotscholars.up.edu/bus_facpubs/26
Kozan, K., & Caskurlu, S. (2018). On the nth presence for the community of inquiry framework. Computers & Education, 122, 104–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.03.010
Kucuk, S., & Richardson, J.C. (2019). A structural equation model of predictors of online learners’ engagement and satisfaction. Online Learning, 23(2), 196–216. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i2.1455
Laub, J. A. (1999). Assessing the servant organization: Development of the organizational leadership assessment (OLA) instrument (Publication No. 9921922) [Doctoral dissertation, Florida Atlantic University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing. https://www.servantleaderperformance.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/1999-Laub-Dissertation.pdf
Lee, A., & Carpenter, N. C. (2018). Seeing eye to eye: A meta-analysis of self-other agreement of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 29(2), 253–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.06.002
Lemoine, G. J., & Blum, T. C. (2020). Leadership and servant leadership: Understanding both by bridging the past and present. In J. C. Burkhardt & J. Y. Joslin (Eds.), Inspiration for servant-leaders: Lessons from fifty years of research and practice (pp. 1–45). The Greenleaf Center for Servant Leadership.
Lowenthal, P. R., Shreaves, D., Gooding, M., & Kepka, J. (2019). Learning to teach online: An exploration of how universities with large online programs train and develop faculty to teach online. Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 20(3), 1–51. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1246512
McCann, J., & Sparks, B. (2018). The relationship of servant leadership in the classroom and student perceptions of university quality of instruction. Archives of Business Research, 6(6),119–133. https://doi.org/10.14738/abr.66.4167
Muljana, P. S., & Luo, T. (2019). Factors contributing to student retention in online learning and recommend strategies for improvement: A systematic literature review. Journal of Information Technology Education, 18, 19–58. https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/stemps_fac_pubs/80
Noland, A., & Richards, K. (2015). Servant teaching: An exploration of teacher servant leadership on student outcomes. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 15(6), 16-38. https://doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v15i6.13928
Oyarzun, B., Barreto, D., & Conklin, S. (2018). Instructor social presence effects on learner social presence, achievement, and satisfaction. TechTrends, 62(6), 625-634. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-018-0299-0
Parris, D. L, & Peachey, J. W. (2013). A systematic literature review of servant leadership theory in organizational contexts. Journal of Business Ethics, 113(3), 377-393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-012-1322-6
Pounder, J. S. (2008). Transformational classroom leadership: A novel approach to evaluating classroom performance. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 33(3), 233-243. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930701292621
Powers, J. B., & Moore, J. W. (2005). Servant-leadership and the art of teaching. The International Journal of Servant-Leadership, 1(1), 123-153. https://gonzaga.azureedge.net/-/media/Website/Documents/Academics/School-of-Leadership-Studies/DPLS/IJSL/Vol-1/IJSL-Vol-1-10-Powers-and-Moore.ashx?rev=68dcd93dc62d4f5cb775ed74c29df662&hash=F1C917D0E87BBC4CCA0844C3936FCF3B
Rebeor, S. M., Rosser-Majors, M. L., McMahon, C. L., Anderson, S. L., Harper, Y., & Sliwinski, L. J. (2019, June). Effective instruction in virtual higher education: Ensuring cognitive, social, and teaching presence. International Conference on Education and New Developments. Porto, Portugal. https://doi.org/10.36315/2019v1end118
Richardson, J. C., Besser, E., Koehler, A., Lim, J., & Strait, M. (2016). Instructors’ perceptions of instructor presence in online learning environments. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 17(4). https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v17i4.2330
Richardson, J., Koehler, A., Besser, E., Caskurlu, S., Lim, J., & Mueller, C. (2015). Conceptualizing and investigating instructor presence in online learning environments. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 16(3), 256–297. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v16i3.2123
Richardson, J. C., & Kozan, K. (2016). Digging deeper into online communities of inquiry at Purdue: Research-informed insights into theory and practice. In M. Orey & R. M. Branch (Eds.). Educational Media and Technology Yearbook, Volume 40 (pp. 85–97). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-45001-8
Sahawneh, F., & Benuto, L. (2018). The relationship between instructor servant leadership behaviors and satisfaction with instructors in an online setting. Online Learning Journal, 22(1), 107. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v22i1.1066
Shea, P., Hayes, S., & Vickers, J. (2010). Online instructional effort measured through the lens of teaching presence in the community of inquiry framework: A re-examination of measures and approach. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 11(3), 127–154. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v11i3.915
Shea, P., Richardson, J., & Swan, K. (2022). Building bridges to advance the community of inquiry framework for online learning. Educational Psychologist, 57(3), 148–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2022.2089989
Spears, L. C. (2002). Tracing the past, present, and future of servant-leadership. In L. C. Spears & M. Lawrence (Eds.), Focus on leadership: Servant-leadership for the 21st Century (pp. 1–16). Wiley.
Stavredes, T. (2011). Effective online teaching: Foundations and strategies for student success. Jossey-Bass.
Swan, K., Chen, C. C., & Bockmier-Sommers, D. K. (2020). Relationships between Carl Rogers’ person-centered education and the community of inquiry framework: A preliminary exploration. Online Learning Journal, 24(3), 4–18. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v24i3.2279
Szeto, E. (2015). Community of inquiry as an instructional approach: What effects of teaching, social and cognitive presences are there in blended synchronous learning and teaching? Computers & Education, 81, 191–201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.015
Valverde-Berrocoso, J., Garrido-Arroyo, M. C., Burgos-Videla, C., & Morales-Cevallos, M. B. (2020). Trends in educational research about e-learning: A systematic literature review (2009-2018), Sustainability, 12(12), Article 5153. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12125153
Van Dierendonck, D. (2011). Servant leadership: A review and synthesis. Journal of Management, 37(4), 1228–1261. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206310380462
Weidlich, J., & Bastiaens, T. J. (2018). Technology matters: The impact of transactional distance on satisfaction in online distance learning. The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning,19(3), 222–242. https://doi.org/10.19173/irrodl.v19i3.3417
Xin, C. (2012). A critique of the community of inquiry framework. The Journal of Distance Education, 26(1), 1–15. https://www.learntechlib.org/p/88367/
Zhang, H., Lin, L., Zhan, Y., & Ren, Y. (2016). The impact of teaching presence on online engagement behaviors. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 54(7), 887–900. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633116648171
Zhang, Y., Tian, Y., Yao, L., Duan, C., Sun, X., & Niu, G. (2022). Individual differences matter in the effect of teaching presence on perceived learning: From the social cognitive perspective of self-regulated learning. Computers and Education, 179, Article 104427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104427
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. The copyright of all content published in IRRODL is retained by the authors.
This copyright agreement and use license ensures, among other things, that an article will be as widely distributed as possible and that the article can be included in any scientific and/or scholarly archive.
You are free to
- Share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
- Adapt — remix, transform, and build upon the material for any purpose, even commercially.
The licensor cannot revoke these freedoms as long as you follow the license terms below:
- Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
- No additional restrictions — You may not apply legal terms or technological measures that legally restrict others from doing anything the license permits.
