Processing : A Study of Iranian EFL Learners ’ Vocabulary Knowledge

The internet has developed into an important source of knowledge in recent times. It is used not just for engaging and entertaining users, but also for promoting language learning, especially for English as a Second/Foreign Language (ESL and EFL) learners spending long hours using internet, 85% of all web pages are in English. This experimental research investigated EFL learners’ experiences of vocabulary learning while surfing and text processing. In this small-scale study, two homogeneous groups of EFL learners (N=19), after taking a vocabulary test to ensure that their vocabulary knowledge differences were not significant, were randomly assigned to attend Interchange 3 class in two different groups – one as the Experimental and the other as the Control Group. Each session, there was a free discussion on special topics; while the Experimental Group surfed the internet, processed the online texts, shared and discussed their findings and beliefs on the internet, the Control Group did not use the internet and simply shared their opinions and discussed their personal beliefs. The results of the vocabulary preand post-tests indicated that the “internet users” significantly outperformed the “non-internet users”, that is, the Control Group. Based on the findings, internet creates a stimulating environment which helps learners effectively boost their vocabulary knowledge.


onomic spheres of ou
world (Singhal, 1997).Pervasive in numerous fields and domains, internet, unquestionably, "carries great potential for educational use, specifically second and foreign language education" (Singhal, 1997, p. 107).The internet provides learners with valuable language resources and makes them capable to communicate openly with native speakers (Kost, 1999;Kroonenberg, 1994).Today's students are encouraged to use internet to look up information for doing projects, preparing and presenting talks and communicating (Cox et al., 2004;Somekh et al., 2002).This, as a result, has given rise to more openness in educational practices and made learners less constrained by boundaries that otherwise impede instruction and learning as physical presence in class.

Therefore, open educational practices (OEP) enable teachers to connect with their learners with greater ease, at a larger scale and on a continuing basis (Schreurs, Van den Beemt, Prinsen, Witthaus, Conole, & De Laat, 2014).It is no doubt that English language dominates this networkbased learning; more than half of the home pages are in English (Crystal, 1997c(Crystal, , 2001)).As a consequence, internet use results in many facets of language development, inasmuch as learners surfing the primarily text-based internet read and write in English, which helps them acquire the language (Mike, 1996).Internet creates huge opportuni

es for the ex
ansion and enrichment of language.

Therefore, it is worthwhile to study the impact of the unmoderated use of the internet on the learners' language development.The present study investigates the effect of internet surfing and online text processing on EFL learners' vocabulary knowledge.The results are helpful for both teachers and students to embrace OEP in order to improve language teaching methods at all levels of education, especially vocabulary knowledge.


Internet and Foreign Language Learning

The prevalence of the internet makes it more and more important to know how to use internet resources and services and, as a part of this, to read and write in English.The role of the internet in language learning is continuing to grow as it provides students with interactive learning resources (Cox et al., 2004;Crystal, 2001;Somekh et al., 2002).When one is familiar with some English, s/he can expand it just by applying it on the internet.According to Mike (1996), internet improves learners' thinking skills.As stude ts search for specific information, they must inspect various resources and texts which entail scanning, discarding, and evaluative judgments.

Following that, learners are required "to make a complete and coherent whole which entails the synthesis process" (Singhal, 1997, p. 107).This interacting with internet, accordingly, develops their reading skills and strategies and improves their lexicon (Mahmoudi & Razak, 2012;Shams, 2013).Moreover, learners can both read and use information on the internet and actually generate and present their own works such as essays, reports, or stories, as well.Learners are also contextualized and experience the real world when they are explori g the internet and communicating with native speakers (Crystal, 2001).This internet mediated learning, then, serves as a medium which helps and facilitates open and distance learning (ODL).It provides many-to-many communication, synchronous tasks, and time-and place-independent learning; each contributes to flourishing learners' language competence (Najafi, Evans, & Federico, 2014, Velasquez, Graham, & West, 2013).It enables te

hers and learners from far-flung areas
o establish connections and engage in activities using L2, target language.Instructors, thus, can serve as mentors to assist learners to correspond asynchronously or in real time to investigate and study specific topics individually or in an interactive format.ODL seizes the opportunity to develop, distribute and apply knowledge more promptly and productively.


Vocabulary Learning

Vocabulary language teaching is often a neglected area (Morgan, Rinvolucri, & Maley, 1986).New items are presented in long lists with their translation or presented as they appeared in reading or listening texts."The word vocabulary has long connoted word lists, and vocabulary learni g strategies have been considered techniques that help commit these lists to memory" (Gu & Johnson 1996, p. 643).According to Meara (1980) "these laboratory experiments completely ignore the complex patterns of meaning relationships that characterize a proper, fully formed lexicon" (p.225).As a result, vocabulary learning is often perceived as boring by learners.On the other hand, without a large vocabulary base, it is difficult to hold a proper conversation.Turgut and Irgin (2009) asserted that "the internet has opened up a world of possibilities for improving the vocabularies of learners (p.761).ODL (e.g., online games and programs) assists students to start an adventure of reading and writing and become autonomous learners.In this way, vocabulary learning shifts to pleasurable learning (Turgut & Irgin, 2009;Mahmoudi & Razak, 2012;Shams, 2013).Online texts play a large role in establishing how words are actually used in speech and writing (Mustafa, Sain & Razak, 2012;Naraghizadeh & Barimani, 2013).In other words, internet resources and online texts stimulate deeper processing of words.It contextualizes vocabularies; since semantic related items are grouped together in the mental lexicon, it is useful to organize vocabularies in semantic fields, such as in topics (Gass & Selinker, 2008).Moreover, if words are learned in context instead of in random lists they a

more likely to be r
membered in the long term.It is also worth mentioning that frequently used items are easier to retrieve (Honeyfield, 1977).In terms of OEP, teachers can present learners with contextualized vocabularies on which learners can continuously work, receive feedback and remember items more swiftly.

Generally speaking, the OEP expands the possibilities for teaching and learning.Thereafter, it must be realized that the ODL's, particularly internet, educational potential is immense.Teachers and learners must apply the internet and its various functions.They must also use specific search resources in order to access information, search for lesson plans, or materials and ideas that, as a result, can greatly enhance the language learning experience.


Literature Review

ODL has revealed promise in addressing a number of concerns raised in F/S language teaching and learning.Studies have shown that internet-mediated language learning improves writing skill and thinking connection (Al-Jarf, 2004;Warschauer, 1995), develops communication and oral discussion, reduces anxiety (Blasszauer, 2001;Weininger & Shield, 2003), nurtures cooperative learning, enhances student motivation, and facilitates cross-cultural awareness (Brandl, 2002;Jogan, Ana, & Gladys, 2001;Meskill & Anthony, 2005;Yang, 2001).In their studies, Hertel (2003), Leloup (1997) and Warschauer (1995) showed that e-mail based activities improve writing skills.E-mail and chat, reported Kost (1999), Hellebrandt (1999) and Kroonenberg (1994), enhance communicative language skills, social learning and critical thinking skills.Chat, for example, "cultivates the ability to think and compose spontaneously" (Kroonenberg, 1994, p. 26).Researchers also reported that e-mail improved reading comprehension (Lunde, 1990) and increased speaking self-confidence (Beauvois, 1994).Yang and Chen (2007) asserted that "the conversational aspect of writing via the network may have helped students to routinize certain expressions, thus promoting t e development of automatic structures that assists speaking" (p.863).In another study, in comparison with traditional teaching method, Facebook as course webpage revealed intensive collaboration and active learning which stimulated a dynamic learning environment (Meishar-Tal, Kurtz, Pieterse, 2012).

According to Liu (1995) and Hult, Kalaja, Lassila, and Lehtisalo (1990), hypermedia technology enhances vocabulary learning and reading comprehension.In st

ying web-based lea
ning, Braine and Yorozu (1998), Cononelos and Oliva (1993) and Hartman et al. (1991) reported that students participated and discussed more during interaction hence their confidence and feedback gradually increased.Chalmers (2003) also claimed that the WebQuest serves to organize the learning process and help learners to be autonomous.Segers and Verhoeven (2009) investigated the effects of using WebQuests in elementary school classrooms in the Netherlands.229 sixth grade students participated in either a free-search Google condition or a closed-search WebQuest condition.Results showed that children's information processing and linguistic skills generally influenced their learning effectiveness and did not interact with condition.Free-search condition revealed the highest improvement in students' writing, and close-searched condition showed the highest learning effectiveness for boys.The analysis of peer feedback in online project-based learning also delineated supportive collaboration between peers as they frequently provided constructive assistance to advance their pairs' thinking (Ching & Hsu, 2013).Working with postgraduate learners, Jowallah (2014) explored synchronous and asynchronous learning and the effect of web conferencing on planning one-on-one meetings and research seminars.Findings of the study indicated that applied strategies helped learners build confidence and manage their work effectively, improve their learning experience, promote intellectual learning, receive feedback and assess their progress.
oncerning studies performed on ODL in Iran, Zarei and Khazaie (2011) explored the ease of recognition and recall of vocabulary items through using laptop.New vocabularies were presented to learners through two modes of visual and verbal and at two high and low levels of ability.The analysis of findings revealed that the programed software provided through laptop enhances the recognition and retrieval of vocabularies.In another study, Shams (2013) explored Iranian learners' autonomy and vocabulary improvement while attending a hybrid vocabulary course.The researcher taught selected words in groups and asked learners to publish posts and reflective essays in the assigned weblog on a regular basis.The findings of the study revealed that learners' autonomy increased and their knowledge of vocabularies was boosted.The study stressed the importance of implementing computer-and self-assisted learning by the help of technological aids.Other studies with similar context, Agca and Ozdemir (2013) in Turkey, Mahoudi, Samad, and Razak (2012) and Mustafa et al. (2012) in Malaysia, explored the effect of mobile, computer and internet on learners' vocabulary learning, respectively.The studies argued that ODL delineated tremendous increase in learners' performances, particularly vocabulary.According to these studies, this new method of teaching and learning can optimize learning effectiveness.In spite of its promising results, ODL has only recently been introduced in Iran; however, there is a growing interest in implementing ODL and OEP in language education especially higher education.The mother tongue and primary language of Iran is Persian/Farsi and English is taught as L2 from guidance school.English language ducation is regarded as important inasmuch as it is being employed largely in academic, economic and other aspects of life.The great advantages in personalizing and contextualizing learning processes over ODL in other countries have brought to eyes the importance of applying this support-driven technique in education in Iran.The findings of this and forthcoming studies, as a consequence, can help the flourishing of ODL in context of Iran.

Upon the importance of vocabulary in language learning and the necessity of helping learners to acquire vocabularies more promptly, therefore, new teaching methods and instruments are required for learners in this era of information and communication technology to initiate vocabularies.As it is established in the literature, F/S language learners are ceaselessly in need of not only developing but updating their knowledge of words.Vocabulary learning is not the matter of memorizing a list of selected words but it has been shown to require deeper processing of meaning.Technological breakthrough, particularly internet and in turn ODL, has introduced a novel route to contrive a better educational environment.Unsatisfactory outcomes of existing vocabulary teaching methods have, further, made instructors and learners excited to embrace this rich learning environment grounded in (online) networks of ODL.In this respect, the present study investigated how this delivery mode of education and instruction influences the learning of practitioners.The results of the study lead to practical implications on how to sustain participation and prosper learning in ODL.

In line with the objective of the study, the researchers have attempted to investigate the following question: Does the use of online texts by Iranian EFL learners bring about any variation in their vocabulary knowledge?


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On the basis of the above research question, the following null hypothesis may be formulated.

Hence, the statistical results of the study would either support or reject the null hypothesis: :The use of online texts by Iranian EFL learners has no effect on their vocabulary improvement.


Methodology Participants

This study was conducted in t e context of a university discussion course at Chabahar public university from April 2014 to June 2014.Random sampling method was used to select participants.

A simple random sample is one in which each and every member of the population has an equal and independent chance of being selected, and it is the best way yet devised to obtain a sample representative of the population of interest.(Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2011, p. 94) Out of the enrolled students for this course, 20 undergraduate EFL learners majoring in English language and literature were selected.One learner, however, was dropped from the study due to missing data.Learners aged from 19 to 21 years old with the mean of 20 of both males (N=11) and females (N=8).As sophomore students, learners have studied English language for two years and were at the intermediate level of proficiency based on their scores on previous term.All learners were from similar social class and had no experience of ODL.An experienced instructor, who is the researcher of the study as well, taught learners.

To be assured of learners' homogeneity in vocabulary knowledge, the participant learners took a Vocabulary Level Te t (VLT) designed by Nation and Beglar (2007).They were then randomly assigned to attend Interchange 3 part 2 cl sses in two groups: Experimental and Control Groups.

To have reliable data, Experimental learners were also t

ght
n internet using and text processing in five extra sessions in two weeks before the study.Afte the instruction, the instructor tested learners on proficiency in using internet and learners r vealed similar capability in internet surfing.


Materials

Two tests were used as instruments i

the study.In order to see
whether the students were of the same level of vocabulary knowledge, VLT designed by Nation and Beglar (2007), including 140 www.thefreedictionary.comwww.nationmaster.com


Procedure

The pr sent study adopted experimental research method with pre-test-treatment-post-test design.After randomly assigning participants to two groups (Experimental Group: 9 and Control Group: 10 students), the time of the class was divided to two equal sessions, the first 45 minute students were provided with conventional means of teaching each lesson by the instructor and the second 45 minute subjects participated in free discussion on topics and subtopics related to their units.While Control Group just expressed their opinions without being forced to explore the net and read online texts, Experimental Group was forced to surf and explore the suggested websites and the other websites they wanted, read different world views, think about them and, in the class, they clarified and defended their opinions based on whatever they found on the internet.

Experimental group was asked, for example, to search in the online texts on "How to trust a product?", "What are after-sale services?"and "What are customer rights?",read different texts and opinions, and the next session that they came to class they negotiated on what they found and what they thought and concluded.At the end of disc ssion, they were asked about the websites, texts and the writers that they read.

The Control Group, however, was not asked or was not encouraged to search in online texts.They were just asked to think about topics and subtopics and deliver their opinions.In other words, the Control Group was merely ta

ht by appl
ing the conventional procedures of teaching an English book and working on the exercise and texts of book and a free discussion.

Following the procedure, the data were collected for further analysis using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 18. Descriptive statistics, independent and paired sample t-test were run to heck the possible effect of text processing.


Results and Discussion

To have enough evidence on the participants' vocabulary knowledge, the researchers administrated VLT prior to the study.Findings of the test revealed that there were no statistically significant differences between the Experimental and Control Groups in their vocabulary knowledge, with results of F=5.78, p = 0.89 > 0.05.Table 1 prov des statistical results.In order to answer the research question, whether the use of online text by EFL learners brings about any variation in their vocabulary knowledge, the results o

vocabulary
pre-and post-tests from the Experimental and Control Groups were compared.It can be seen, therefore, that the use of online texts may represent a different learning environment as opposed to classroom learning where information usually flows unidirectionally -and generally from teachers to students.

Table 2 presents mean scores and standard deviations for the Experimental and Control Groups' vocabulary pre-and post-tests.In the pre-test, the Experimental Group and the Control Group, respectively, had M=25.00,SD=3.24, and M=25.80,SD=2.09.In the post-test, the Experimental Group and the Control Group, respectively, had M=32.88,SD=1.90, and M=26.90, SD=2.13.The results of Table 2 further indicate that there was no significant difference between the Experimental and Control Groups' mean scores on the pre-test (t = -0.64,df = 17, p = 0.52 > 0.05).The v cabulary knowledge of the Experimental Group is similar to that of the Control Group before the use of online text intervention started.However, there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the two groups on the post-test (t = 6.43, df = 17, p = 0.00 < 0.05).The Experimental Group achieved significantly higher scores than the Control Group in the post-test.This means that after the use of online text intervention, the internet user group outperformed the Control Group on the vocabulary knowledge post-test.Assessing learners' improvement through computer-assisted language learning (CALL), Mustafa et al. (2012) asserted that "the increase marks for the Control Group is between 3 percent to 23 percent while the Experimental Group has an increase between 10 perce t to 27 percent" (p.427).Online vocabulary exercises have also shown the same development in learners' performances (Mahmoudi & Razak, 2012).By the same token, Shams (2013) has depicted 83.33% improvement in learners' vocabulary knowledge after expos

g to a hybrid learning
ourse.According to Shams, "attending this hybrid learning course proved effective for the initial participants of this study to develop their autonomy and vocabulary knowledge" (p.1591).Similarly, experimental learners in this study could effectively fortify their vocabulary knowledge and apply them in discussion time.

The high range of new vocabularies learners used in proving themselves or confirming their classmates was evidence of their vocabulary promotion.The results of paired t-tests in Table 3 also show that there was a significant difference between the Experimental Group's pre-and post-tests (t = -7.88,df = 8, p = 0.00 < 0.05).That is, the participants who used internet, online texts, significantly improved their vocabulary knowledge.

Internet helped learners not only develop their comprehension of words, absorb a large range of new vocabularies related to assigned topics, but also easily express their beliefs and discuss opinions.As shown in Table 3, there is no significant difference between the Control Group's preand post-tests (t = -1.10,df = 9, p = 0.10 > 0.05).That is, the participants who did not use internet and online texts did not significantly improve their vocabulary knowledge.By the same token, Al-Jarf ( 2004) argued that web-based writing significantly improved Experimental learners' post-test performances compared to their pre-test writings; "results of the paired t-test … show a significant difference between the pre-test and post-test mean scores of the Experimental Group at the .01level (T=12.14, df=61)" (p.9).Mahmoudi and Razak's (2012) findings "revealed that participants showed significant positive performance towards CALL (M=33.76,SD=7.05, t(29)=10.38,p<.0005) … Therefore, the use of on-line instruction increased the range of respondent's English language vocabulary" (p.496).Likewise, Naraghizadeh and Barimani (2013) reached significant differences of Experimental Group on their performance in pre-test and post-test (t = 43.64,p < 0.01) on effect of CALL instruction on learners' vocabulary development.

As it was mentioned, there were no significant differences in vocabulary knowle ge between the groups at pre-test, while there were significant differences among them at post-test.Therefore, the differences may be attributed to the use or non-use of online texts by the participants.The obtained main scores by each of the two groups on the vocabulary post-test indicated that the Experimental Group obtained a higher mean than the Control Group, which turns out to be significant.By the p≤0.05 we can reject the null hypothesis of the research, denoting that, using online texts would positively influence students' vocabulary learning, that is Experimental Group outperformed the Control Group.


Conclusion

In the introduction, in line with object of the study, a research question was proposed: whether use of online texts by Iranian EFL learners brings about any variation in their vocabulary knowledge.Furthermore, on the basis of this research question, a null hypothesis was also proposed-assuming that the use of online texts by EFL learners has no effect on their vocabulary knowledge.The analysis of findings revealed that learners in Experimental Group significantly boosted their vocabulary knowledge compared to their counterparts in Control Group.It, accordingly, is concluded that learners who surfed the internet and read online texts performed better in their academic performances and thus the null hypothesis was rejected.Taking advantage of internet and therefore creating an ODL environment can be effective for other (Iranian) EFL learners with the same characteristics as the participants of this study.

According to the results, internet plays an important role in the learning process, specifically vocabulary.Online texts processing provides learners with contextualized vocabularies on various topics.Moreover, the e natural repetitions in online texts allow language learners to be continuously exposed to the L2 and create more opportunities for acquisition to occur (Gass & Selinker, 2008).In the other words, a kind of transmission of knowledge on the internet (online texts) occurs to solve the meaning of unknown words in the texts.As students visually see vocabulary and learn the meaning of words, they understand and retain them better and easier.

Results obtained from pre-and post-tests also indicate that online texts have been perceived as having been stimulating and beneficial.Members of the Experimental Group expressed positive attitudes towards the use of online texts as a means of practicing the

English at
the end of the discussions; most of them spent considerably more time on the task than required and felt that their English improved as a result.For the participants, understanding the information presented in texts had importance, motivating them to learn unknown words and focusing on texts to catch the point.

Table 1
1
Vocabulary Size Test in the Experimental and Control Groups
ExperimentalControln= 9n= 10tpMSDMSDVocabulary Size Test80.113.6880.302.21-0.130.89* p < .05

Table 2
2
The Independent Samples T-Test for the Experimental and Control Groups
ExperimentalControln= 9n= 10tpMSDMSDPre-test25.003.2425.802.09-0.640.52Post-test32.881.9026.902.136.430.00* p < .05

Table 3
3
Paired T-Test for Pre-and Post-Tests of the Experimental and Control Groups
Paired DifferencesMSDSEMtdfpExperimental group-7.881.610.53-14.6480.00Pre-test --Post-testControl group-1.100.730.23-0.7190.10Pre-test --Post-test* p < .05
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
AcknowledgmentThe authors would like to express their gratitude to the reviewers for their insightful comments.multiple-choice questions, was given to the students.The first test was administrated among the students before dividing them into two groups.The second instrument of the study was a 60 multiple-choice vocabulary test adopted from Essential Words for the TOEFL(Matthiesen, 2007).The second test was used twice, once as a pre-test at the beginning of the term and once as a post-test at the end of the semester.The test was employed to examine differences between two gr ups in their knowledge of words in English before and after intervention.As a part of the course materials, the second four units of Interchange 3 were selected to work on with students in twenty sessions.Each unit had a general topic and some subtopics: In sum, EFL learners using online texts as an OEP can promote their language learning and especially vocabulary skills.They would be best advised to try to use online texts that are useful resources for language learning.In relation to future English learning and technology, the study suggests ways forward in implementing the stud

and
tilization of technology.Although preparing for an internet-based language lesson may be rather difficult, as far as browsing information on the net entails a substantial amount of time, it is undeniably pleasing employing it in learning process, as learners benefit from it immensely.
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